This Quiz Includes Terms and Images of Funerary Art and Buddhist Art

Creative practices influenced by Buddhism

Thangka of Shakyamuni Buddha, Tibet, c. 18th century

Buddhist fine art is art influenced past Buddhism. It includes depictions of Buddhas and bodhisattvas, notable Buddhist figures both historical and mythical, narrative scenes from their lives, mandalas, and physical objects associated with Buddhist exercise, such every bit vajras, bells, stupas and Buddhist temple architecture.^[1] Buddhist art originated on the Indian subcontinent, post-obit the historical life of Siddhartha Gautama from the 6th to 5th century BCE.

As Buddhism spread and evolved in each new host state, Buddhist art followed in its footsteps. Information technology adult to the north through Fundamental Asia and into Eastern asia to course the Northern branch of Buddhist art, and to the east every bit far every bit Southeast Asia to form the Southern branch of Buddhist art. In India, Buddhist art flourished and co-developed with Hindu and Jain art, with cavern temple complexes congenital together, each likely influencing the other.^[two]

History [edit]

Pre-iconic phase (5th–1st century BCE) [edit]

During the second to 1st century BCE, sculptures became more explicit, representing episodes of the Buddha's life and teachings. These took the form of votive tablets or friezes, usually in relation to the decoration of stupas. Although India had a long sculptural tradition and a mastery of rich iconography, the Buddha was never represented in human form, merely only through Buddhist symbolism. This menstruum may have been aniconic.

Artists were reluctant to depict the Buddha anthropomorphically, and developed sophisticated aniconic symbols to avert doing and so (even in narrative scenes where other homo figures would appear). This trend remained as tardily as the 2nd century CE in the southern parts of India, in the art of the Amaravati School (see: Mara's assault on the Buddha). It has been argued that before anthropomorphic representations of the Buddha may accept been made of wood and may have perished since and then. Still, no related archaeological evidence has been constitute.

The earliest works of Buddhist art in India date back to the 1st century BCE. The Mahabodhi Temple at Bodh Gaya became a model for similar structures in Burma and Indonesia. The frescoes at Sigiriya are said to exist even older than the Ajanta Caves paintings.^[three]

Iconic phase (1st century CE – nowadays) [edit]

Chinese historical sources and mural paintings in the Tarim Basin city of Dunhuang accurately describe the travels of the explorer and administrator Zhang Qian to Central Asia as far as Bactria effectually 130 BCE, and the same murals describe the Emperor Han Wudi (156–87 BCE) worshiping Buddhist statues, explaining them as "golden men brought in 120 BCE by a groovy Han general in his campaigns against the nomads." Although at that place is no other mention of Han Wudi worshiping the Buddha in Chinese historical literature, the murals would advise that statues of the Buddha were already in existence during the 2nd century BCE, connecting them direct to the time of the Indo-Greeks.

Anthropomorphic representations of the Buddha started to sally from the 1st century CE in Northern India, with the Bimaran casket. The three main centers of creation accept been identified equally Gandhara in today's North West Frontier Province, in Pakistan, Amaravati and the region of Mathura, in central northern India.

Hellenistic culture was introduced in Gandhara during the conquests of Alexander the Great in 332 BCE. Chandragupta Maurya (r. 321–298 BCE), founder of the Mauryan Empire, conquered the Macedonian satraps during the Seleucid-Mauryan War of 305–303 BCE. Chandragupta's grandson Ashoka (r. 268–232 BCE), who formed the largest Empire in the Indian subcontinent, converted to Buddhism post-obit the Kalinga State of war. Abandoning an expansionist credo, Ashoka worked to spread the religion and philosophy throughout his empire as described in the edicts of Ashoka. Ashoka claims to take converted the Greek populations within his realm to Buddhism:

Hither in the king's domain among the Greeks, the Kambojas, the Nabhakas, the Nabhapamkits, the Bhojas, the Pitinikas, the Andhras and the Palidas, everywhere people are following Honey-of-the-Gods' instructions in Dharma.^[5]

Later the overthrow of the Mauryan Empire by the Shunga Empire, the Greco-Bactrian and subsequently the Indo-Greek Kingdoms invaded north-western Republic of india. They facilitated the spread of Greco-Buddhist art style to other parts of the subcontinent. The Indo-Greek King Menander I was renown every bit a neat patron of Buddhism, attaining the championship of an arhat.^[6] Meanwhile, Pushyamitra Shunga persecuted Buddhism, presumably to further erase the legacy of the Mauryan Empire.^[7] This led to the decline of Buddhist art east of Mathura.

Gandharan Buddhist sculpture displays Hellenistic artistic influence in the forms of man figures and decoration. Figures were much larger than whatever known from India previously, and also more naturalistic, and new details included wavy hair, drapery roofing both shoulders, shoes and sandals, and acanthus foliage ornament.^{[ citation needed ]}

The art of Mathura tends to exist based on an Indian tradition, exemplified by the anthropomorphic representation of divinities such every bit the Yaksas, although in a style rather archaic compared to the afterward representations of the Buddha. The Mathuran school contributed clothes covering the left shoulder of thin muslin, the wheel on the palm, the lotus seat.^{[ commendation needed ]}

Mathura and Gandhara also influenced each other. During their creative florescence, the 2 regions were even united politically nether the Kushans, both beingness capitals of the empire. It is all the same a matter of debate whether the anthropomorphic representations of Buddha was essentially a issue of a local evolution of Buddhist art at Mathura, or a consequence of Greek cultural influence in Gandhara through the Greco-Buddhist syncretism.

This iconic art was characterized from the commencement by a realistic idealism, combining realistic man features, proportions, attitudes and attributes, together with a sense of perfection and serenity reaching to the divine. This expression of the Buddha as both human being and God became the iconographic canon for subsequent Buddhist art.^{[ citation needed ]}

Remains of early on Buddhist painting in India are vanishingly rare, with the later on phases of the Ajanta Caves giving the cracking majority of surviving piece of work, created over a relatively short up to nigh 480 CE. These are highly sophisticated works, evidently produced in a well-developed tradition, probably painting secular piece of work in palaces as much equally religious subjects.

Buddhist art continued to develop in India for a few more centuries. The pink sandstone sculptures of Mathura evolved during the Gupta menses (4th to 6th century CE) to reach a very high fineness of execution and delicacy in the modeling. The art of the Gupta school was extremely influential almost everywhere in the rest of Asia. At the terminate of the 12th century CE, Buddhism in its full celebrity came to be preserved just in the Himalayan regions in India. These areas, helped by their location, were in greater contact with Tibet and Cathay - for example the art and traditions of Ladakh bear the postage of Tibetan and Chinese influence.

Buddhist expansion throughout Asia.

As Buddhism expanded outside of India from the 1st century CE, its original artistic package composite with other creative influences, leading to a progressive differentiation among the countries adopting the faith.

• A Northern route was established from the 1st century CE through Primal Asia, Nepal, Tibet, Bhutan, China, Korea, Japan and Vietnam, in which Mahayana Buddhism prevailed.
• A Southern route, where Theravada Buddhism dominated, went through Myanmar, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Cambodia, and Lao people's democratic republic.

Northern Buddhist art [edit]

The Silk Road transmission of Buddhism to Central Asia, Red china and ultimately Korea and Nihon started in the 1st century CE with a semi-legendary account of an diplomatic mission sent to the Due west by the Chinese Emperor Ming (58–75 CE). However, extensive contacts started in the 2nd century CE, probably as a consequence of the expansion of the Kushan Empire into the Chinese territory of the Tarim Basin, with the missionary efforts of a great number of Central Asian Buddhist monks to Chinese lands. The get-go missionaries and translators of Buddhists scriptures into Chinese, such equally Lokaksema, were either Parthian, Kushan, Sogdian or Kuchean.

Key Asian missionary efforts forth the Silk Route were accompanied by a flux of creative influences, visible in the development of Serindian art from the 2nd through the 11th century in the Tarim Basin, modern Xinjiang. Serindian fine art oft derives from the Greco-Buddhist art of the Gandhara district of what is now Pakistan, combining Indian, Greek and Roman influences. Silk Road Greco-Buddhist artistic influences tin can exist constitute equally far every bit Japan to this mean solar day, in architectural motifs, Buddhist imagery, and a select few representations of Japanese gods.

The art of the northern route was also highly influenced by the development of Mahāyāna Buddhism, an inclusive branch of Buddhism characterized past the adoption of new texts, in addition to the traditional āgamas, and a shift in the agreement of Buddhism. Mahāyāna goes beyond the traditional Early Buddhist platonic of the release from suffering (duḥkha) of arhats, and emphasizes the bodhisattva path. The Mahāyāna sutras elevate the Buddha to a transcendent and space existence, and feature a pantheon of bodhisattvas devoting themselves to the 6 Perfections, ultimate knowledge (Prajñāpāramitā), enlightenment, and the liberation of all sentient beings. Northern Buddhist art thus tends to be characterized past a very rich and syncretic Buddhist pantheon, with a multitude of images of the diverse buddhas, bodhisattvas, and heavenly beings (devas).

Afghanistan [edit]

Head of Buddha, Afghanistan (probably Hadda), fifth–sixth century

Buddhist fine art in Afghanistan (old Bactria) persisted for several centuries until the spread of Islam in the 7th century. Information technology is exemplified by the Buddhas of Bamyan. Other sculptures, in stucco, schist or clay, display very strong blending of Indian post-Gupta mannerism and Classical influence, Hellenistic or possibly even Greco-Roman.

Although Islamic rule was limited tolerant of other religions "of the Volume", it showed zero tolerance for Buddhism, which was perceived as a organized religion depending on "idolatry". Human figurative art forms also being prohibited under Islam, Buddhist fine art suffered numerous attacks, which culminated with the systematic destructions past the Taliban authorities. The Buddhas of Bamyan, the sculptures of Hadda, and many of the remaining artifacts at the Afghanistan museum take been destroyed.

The multiple conflicts since the 1980s also take led to a systematic pillage of archaeological sites plainly in the hope of reselling in the international market what artifacts could be found.

Central Asia [edit]

Central Asia long played the part of a meeting place between Red china, India and Persia. During the 2nd century BCE, the expansion of the Former Han to the West led to increased contact with the Hellenistic civilizations of Asia, especially the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom.

Thereafter, the expansion of Buddhism to the Due north led to the formation of Buddhist communities and even Buddhist kingdoms in the haven of Primal Asia. Some Silk Road cities consisted almost entirely of Buddhist stupas and monasteries, and it seems that i of their master objectives was to welcome and service travelers between East and West.

The eastern part of Central Asia (Chinese Turkestan (Tarim Bowl, Xinjiang) in item has revealed an extremely rich Serindian art (wall paintings and reliefs in numerous caves, portable paintings on canvass, sculpture, ritual objects), displaying multiple influences from Indian and Hellenistic cultures. Works of fine art reminiscent of the Gandharan mode, equally well equally scriptures in the Gandhari script Kharoshti have been found. These influences were chop-chop absorbed even so past the vigorous Chinese civilization, and a strongly Chinese particularism develops from that point.

China [edit]

A seated Maitreya statue Northern Wei, 512 CE.

Buddhism arrived in China around the 1st century CE, and introduced new types of art into China, specially in the area of statuary. Receiving this afar religion, strong Chinese traits were incorporated into Buddhist art.

Northern Dynasties [edit]

In the 5th to 6th centuries, the Northern Dynasties developed rather symbolic and abstruse modes of representation, with schematic lines. Their style is also said to exist solemn and royal. The lack of amount of this art, and its distance from the original Buddhist objective of expressing the pure platonic of enlightenment in an accessible and realistic manner, progressively led to a alter towards more naturalism and realism, leading to the expression of Tang Buddhist art.

Sites preserving Northern Wei Dynasty Buddhist sculpture:

• Yungang Grottoes, Shanxi
• Longmen Grottoes, Henan
• Bingling Temple, Gansu

Tang Dynasty - Qing Dynasty [edit]

Following a transition under the Sui Dynasty, Buddhist sculpture of the Tang evolved towards a markedly lifelike expression. Considering of the dynasty's openness to foreign influences, and renewed exchanges with Indian civilization due to the numerous travels of Chinese Buddhist monks to India, Tang dynasty Buddhist sculpture assumed a rather classical form, inspired by the Indian art of the Gupta flow. During that fourth dimension, the Tang majuscule of Chang'an (today'due south Xi'an) became an important center for Buddhism. From there Buddhism spread to Korea, and Japanese missions to Tang China helped it proceeds a foothold in Nihon. Strange influences came to be negatively perceived in China towards the finish of the Tang dynasty. In the yr 845, the Tang emperor Wuzong outlawed all "strange" religions (including Christian Nestorianism, Zoroastrianism and Buddhism) in order to support the indigenous religion, Taoism. He confiscated Buddhist possessions, and forced the faith to become undercover, therefore affecting the development of the religion and its arts in Prc.

After the Tang dynasty, Buddhism continued to receive official patronage in several states during the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period, which continued nether the successive Liao, Jin, Song, Yuan and Ming dynasties. This was marked by construction of new monumental Buddhist artwork at grottoes, such as the massive Buddha sculptures at the Dazu Rock Carvings in Sichuan province, as well every bit at temples, such every bit the giant esoteric statues of the Bodhisattva Guanyin in Longxing Temple and Dule Temple.^{[ten] [xi] [12]} The various Chinese Buddhist traditions, such as Tiantai and Huayan, experienced revivals. Chan Buddhism, in particular, rose to great prominence nether the Song dynasty. Early paintings by Chan monks tended to eschew the meticulous realism of Gongbi painting in favour of vigorous, monochrome paintings, attempting to limited the impact of enlightenment through their brushwork.^[13] The rise of Neo-Confucianism under Zhu Xi in the twelfth century resulted in considerable criticism of the monk-painters by the literati. Despite this, Chan ink paintings continued to exist practiced by monastics through the Yuan (1271 - 1368) and Ming (1368 - 1644) dynasties well into the Qing (1636 - 1912) dynasty.^{[14] [xv] [16]} Aside from Chan ink paintings, other forms of painting also proliferated, especially during the Ming dynasty, such as the Water and Land Ritual paintings and mural art which depict various Buddhist divinities and other figures.^[17]

During the Qing Dynasty, Manchu emperors supported Buddhist practices for a range of political and personal reasons. The Shunzhi Emperor was a devotee of Chan Buddhism, while his successor, the Kangxi Emperor promoted Tibetan Buddhism, claiming to be the human embodiment of the bodhisattva Manjusri.^[18] Still, it was nether the rule of the third Qing ruler, the Qianlong Emperor, that regal patronage of the Buddhist arts reached its elevation in this period. He deputed a vast number of religious works in the Tibetan style, many of which depicted him in various sacred guises.^[19] Works of fine art produced during this catamenia are characterized by a unique fusion of Tibetan and Chinese creative approaches. They combine a characteristically Tibetan attention to iconographic detail with Chinese-inspired decorative elements. Inscriptions are oftentimes written in Chinese, Manchu, Tibetan, Mongolian and Sanskrit, while paintings are frequently rendered in vibrant colors.^[twenty] Additionally, the Qianlong Emperor initiated a number of big-calibration structure projects; in 1744 he rededicated the Yonghe Temple as Beijing's main Tibetan Buddhist monastery, donating a number of valuable religious paintings, sculptures, textiles and inscriptions to the temple.^[21] The Xumi Fushou Temple, and the works housed within, is another project deputed past the Qianlong Emperor that embodies the unique blend of Chinese, Tibetan and Manchurian artistic styles that characterized some of the Buddhist art produced in China under Qianlong's reign. Later the Qianlong Emperor'south abdication in 1795, the popularity of Tibetan Buddhism at the Qing courtroom declined. The motives backside the Qing emperors' promotion of Tibetan Buddhism have been interpreted every bit a calculated act of political manipulation, and a means of forging ties betwixt Manchu, Mongolian, and Tibetan communities, though this has been challenged past recent scholarship.^[22]

Legacy [edit]

The popularization of Buddhism in China has made the country home to the richest collections of Buddhist arts in the world. The Mogao Caves virtually Dunhuang and the Bingling Temple caves nearly Yongjing in Gansu province, the Longmen Grottoes most Luoyang in Henan province, the Yungang Grottoes nearly Datong in Shanxi province, and the Dazu Rock Carvings nearly Chongqing municipality are among the most important and renowned Buddhist sculptural sites. The Leshan Giant Buddha, carved out of a hillside in the eighth century during the Tang Dynasty and looking down on the confluence of three rivers, is even so the largest stone Buddha statue in the world. Numerous temples throughout China nevertheless preserve various Buddhist statues and paintings from previous dynasties. In addition, Buddhist sculptures are nonetheless produced in gimmicky times mainly for enshrinement in Buddhist temples and shrines.

Korea [edit]

Korean Buddhist fine art generally reflects an interaction between other Buddhist influences and a strongly original Korean culture. Additionally, the fine art of the steppes, peculiarly Siberian and Scythian influences, are evident in early Korean Buddhist fine art based on the excavation of artifacts and burying goods such as Silla purple crowns, belt buckles, daggers, and comma-shaped gogok.^{[23] [24]} The style of this ethnic art was geometric, abstract and richly adorned with a characteristic "barbarian" luxury ^{[ clarify ]}. Although many other influences were potent, Korean Buddhist art, "bespeaks a sobriety, taste for the right tone, a sense of abstraction just also of colours that curiously enough are in line with gimmicky taste" (Pierre Cambon, Arts asiatiques – Guimet').^{[ citation needed ]}

Three Kingdoms of Korea [edit]

Bangasayusang, semi-seated contemplative Maitreya probably from Silla, circa early 7th century.

The first of the Three Kingdoms of Korea to officially receive Buddhism was Goguryeo in 372.^[25] Nonetheless, Chinese records and the use of Buddhist motifs in Goguryeo murals betoken the introduction of Buddhism earlier than the official appointment.^[26] The Baekje Kingdom officially recognized Buddhism in 384.^[25] The Silla Kingdom, isolated and with no easy ocean or state access to Mainland china, officially adopted Buddhism in 535 although the strange religion was known in the kingdom due to the work of Goguryeo monks since the early 5th century.^[27] The introduction of Buddhism stimulated the demand for artisans to create images for veneration, architects for temples, and the literate for the Buddhist sutras and transformed Korean civilization. Especially important in the transmission of sophisticated art styles to the Korean kingdoms was the art of the "barbarian" Tuoba, a association of non-Han Chinese Xianbei people who established the Northern Wei Dynasty in Prc in 386. The Northern Wei mode was particularly influential in the art of the Goguryeo and Baekje. Baekje artisans afterwards transmitted this mode along with Southern Dynasty elements and distinct Korean elements to Nihon. Korean artisans were highly selective of the styles they incorporated and combined unlike regional styles together to create a specific Korean Buddhist art style.^{[28] [29]}

While Goguryeo Buddhist art exhibited vitality and mobility alike with Northern Wei prototypes, the Baekje Kingdom was as well in close contact with the Southern Dynasties of Communist china and this close diplomatic contact is exemplified in the gentle and proportional sculpture of the Baekje, epitomized by Baekje sculpture exhibiting the fathomless smile known to art historians every bit the Baekje smile.^[thirty] The Silla Kingdom also developed a distinctive Buddhist fine art tradition epitomized by the Bangasayusang, a half-seated contemplative statue of Maitreya whose Korean-fabricated twin was sent to Japan as a proselytizing souvenir and now resides in the Koryu-ji Temple in Japan.^[31]

Buddhism in the Iii Kingdoms flow stimulated massive temple-building projects, such as the Mireuksa Temple in the Baekje Kingdom and the Hwangnyongsa Temple in Silla. Baekje architects were famed for their skill and were instrumental in building the massive ix-story pagoda at Hwangnyongsa and early Buddhist temples in Yamato Japan such as Hōkō-ji (Asuka-dera) and Hōryū-ji.^[32] sixth century Korean Buddhist art exhibited the cultural influences of China and India only began to testify distinctive indigenous characteristics.^[33] These indigenous characteristics can be seen in early Buddhist art in Nippon and some early Japanese Buddhist sculpture is now believed to have originated in Korea, particularly from Baekje, or Korean artisans who immigrated to Yamato Nihon. Peculiarly, the semi-seated Maitreya form was adjusted into a highly developed Korean mode which was transmitted to Nihon as evidenced by the Koryu-ji Miroku Bosatsu and the Chugu-ji Siddhartha statues. Although many historians portray Korea as a mere transmitter of Buddhism, the Three Kingdoms, and specially Baekje, were instrumental equally agile agents in the introduction and germination of a Buddhist tradition in Japan in 538 or 552.^[34]

Unified Silla [edit]

During the Unified Silla period, Eastern asia was peculiarly stable with China and Korea both enjoying unified governments. Early on Unified Silla art combined Silla styles and Baekje styles. Korean Buddhist art was also influenced by new Tang Dynasty styles as evidenced by a new pop Buddhist motif with full-faced Buddha sculptures. Tang China was the cross roads of East, Central, and Southern asia and then the Buddhist art of this time period exhibit the so-called international style. Land-sponsored Buddhist art flourished during this period, the epitome of which is the Seokguram Grotto.

Goryeo Dynasty [edit]

The fall of the Unified Silla Dynasty and the institution of the Goryeo Dynasty in 918 indicates a new menses of Korean Buddhist art. The Goryeo kings besides lavishly sponsored Buddhism and Buddhist art flourished, especially Buddhist paintings and illuminated sutras written in gold and silvery ink. [1]. The crowning accomplishment of this period is the carving of approximately 80,000 woodblocks of the Tripitaka Koreana which was washed twice.

Joseon Dynasty [edit]

The Joseon Dynasty actively suppressed Buddhism beginning in 1406 and Buddhist temples and art production subsequently pass up in quality in quantity although beginning in 1549, Buddhist art does continue to be produced. [ii].

Japan [edit]

Earlier the introduction of Buddhism, Japan had already been the seat of various cultural (and artistic) influences, from the abstruse linear decorative fine art of the indigenous Neolithic Jōmon from effectually 10500 BCE to 300 BCE, to the art during the Yayoi and Kofun periods, with developments such equally Haniwa art.

The cultural exchange between India and Japan was non straight, as Japan received Buddhism through Korea, China, Central Asia and eventually Bharat. The Japanese discovered Buddhism in the sixth century when missionary monks travelled to the islands together with numerous scriptures and works of art. The cultural contact between Indian Dharmic civilization and Nippon through the adoption of Buddhist ideas and aesthetic has contributed to the development of a national cultural society in the subsequent century.^[35] The Buddhist religion was adopted past the land in the following century. Being geographically at the finish of the Silk Road, Japan was able to preserve many aspects of Buddhism at the very time information technology was disappearing in India, and existence suppressed in Cardinal Asia.

From 711, numerous temples and monasteries were congenital in the upper-case letter urban center of Nara, including a five-story pagoda, the Golden Hall of the Horyuji, and the Kōfuku-ji temple. Countless paintings and sculptures were made, often under governmental sponsorship. Indian, Hellenistic, Chinese and Korean artistic influences blended into an original mode characterized past realism and gracefulness.

The creation of Japanese Buddhist art was specially rich between the 8th and 13th centuries during the periods of Nara, Heian and Kamakura. Japan developed an extremely rich figurative art for the pantheon of Buddhist deities, sometimes combined with Hindu and Shinto influences. This fine art can be very varied, artistic and bold. Jōchō is said to be ane of the greatest Buddhist sculptors not only in Heian period but also in the history of Buddhist statues in Japan. Jōchō redefined the body shape of Buddha statues by perfecting the technique of "yosegi zukuri" (寄木造り) which is a combination of several wood. The peaceful expression and svelte figure of the Buddha statue that he made completed a Japanese fashion of sculpture of Buddha statues called "Jōchō yō" (Jōchō style, 定朝様) and determined the style of Japanese Buddhist statues of the after menstruation. His achievement dramatically raised the social status of busshi (Buddhist sculptor) in Nihon.^[36]

In the Kamakura period, the Minamoto clan established the Kamakura shogunate and the samurai grade virtually ruled Japan for the showtime time. Jocho's successors, sculptors of the Kei school of Buddhist statues, created realistic and dynamic statues to arrange the tastes of samurai, and Japanese Buddhist sculpture reached its peak. Unkei, Kaikei, and Tankei were famous, and they made many new Buddha statues at many temples such as Kofuku-ji, where many Buddha statues had been lost in wars and fires.^[37] One of the nigh outstanding Buddhist arts of the period was the statue of Buddha enshrined in Sanjūsangen-dō consisting of 1032 statues produced by sculptors of Buddhist statues of the Kei school, In school and En school. The 1 principal image Senju Kannon in the center, the surrounding 1001 Senju Kannon, the 28 attendants of Senju Kannon, Fūjin and Raijin create a solemn space, and all Buddha statues are designated equally National Treasures.^{[38] [39]}

From the 12th and 13th, a further development was Zen art, and information technology faces golden days in Muromachi Menstruum, post-obit the introduction of the faith by Dogen and Eisai upon their return from Prc. Zen fine art is mainly characterized by original paintings (such equally sumi-e) and poetry (especially haikus), striving to limited the true essence of the globe through impressionistic and unadorned "non-dualistic" representations. The search for enlightenment "in the moment" also led to the development of other important derivative arts such equally the Chanoyu tea anniversary or the Ikebana art of flower organisation. This evolution went every bit far as considering about whatsoever man activity as an art with a strong spiritual and aesthetic content, first and foremost in those activities related to combat techniques (martial arts).

Buddhism remains very active in Japan to this day. Withal around 80,000 Buddhist temples are preserved. Many of them are in forest and are regularly restored.

Tibet and Bhutan [edit]

Yama, 18th century, Tibet

Tantric Buddhism started as a movement in eastern India around the 5th or the 6th century. Many of the practices of Tantric Buddhism are derived from Brahmanism (the usage of mantras, yoga, or the burning of sacrificial offerings). Tantrism became the dominant course of Buddhism in Tibet from the 8th century. Due to its geographical centrality in Asia, Tibetan Buddhist art received influence from Indian, Nepali, Greco-Buddhist and Chinese art.

I of the well-nigh feature creations of Tibetan Buddhist art are the mandalas, diagrams of a "divine temple" made of a circle enclosing a square, the purpose of which is to assist Buddhist devotees focus their attention through meditation and follow the path to the central image of the Buddha. Artistically, Buddhist Gupta fine art and Hindu art tend to be the two strongest inspirations of Tibetan art.

In 10th to 11th centuries, Tabo Monastery in Himachal Pradesh, Northern India (at that fourth dimension part of Western Tibet Kingdom) serves an important role equally an intermediary between Bharat and Tibet cultural exchange, especially Buddhist art and philosophy. Notable case of Tibetan Buddhist art in Tabo is its exquisite frescoes.^[40]

Vietnam [edit]

The boy Buddha rising up from lotus. Cerise and gilded wood, Trần-Hồ dynasty, Vietnam, 14th–15th century

Chinese influence was predominant in the north of Vietnam (Tonkin) betwixt the 1st and ninth centuries, and Confucianism and Mahayana Buddhism were prevalent. Overall, the art of Vietnam has been strongly influenced by Chinese Buddhist art.

In the south thrived the former kingdom of Champa (before it was after overtaken by the Vietnamese from the due north). Champa had a strongly Indianized art, just every bit neighboring Kingdom of cambodia. Many of its statues were characterized by rich body adornments. The capital of the kingdom of Champa was annexed by Vietnam in 1471, and information technology totally collapsed in the 1720s, while Cham people remain an abundant minority across Southeast Asia.

Southern Buddhist art [edit]

The orthodox forms of Buddhism, also known as Southern Buddhism are still practised in Sri Lanka, Myanmar (Burma), Thailand, Laos, and Cambodia. During the 1st century CE, the trade on the overland Silk Road tended to be restricted by the ascension of the Parthian empire in the Centre East, an unvanquished enemy of Rome, just as Romans were becoming extremely wealthy and their need for Asian luxury was rising. This demand revived the body of water connections between the Mediterranean Sea and China, with Bharat equally the intermediary of pick. From that time, through trade connections, commercial settlements, and even political interventions, India started to strongly influence Southeast Asian countries. Trade routes linked Republic of india with southern Burma, central and southern Siam, lower Cambodia and southern Vietnam, and numerous urbanized littoral settlements were established at that place.

A Cambodian Buddha, 14th century

For more than a thousand years, Indian influence was therefore the major gene that brought a certain level of cultural unity to the diverse countries of the region. The Pali and Sanskrit languages and the Indian script, together with Mahayana and Theravada Buddhism, Brahmanism and Hinduism, were transmitted from direct contact and through sacred texts and Indian literature such as the Ramayana and the Mahabharata. This expansion provided the artistic context for the evolution of Buddhist art in these countries, which then developed characteristics of their own.

Between the 1st and 8th centuries, several kingdoms competed for influence in the region (especially the Cambodian Funan then the Burmese Mon kingdoms) contributing various artistic characteristics, mainly derived from the Indian Gupta style. Combined with a pervading Hindu influence, Buddhist images, votive tablets and Sanskrit inscriptions are plant throughout the surface area. Between eighth- and 12th-century, under the patronage of Pala dynasty, arts and ideas of Buddhism and Hinduism co-developed and became increasingly intermeshed.^[41] Yet, with Muslim invasion and sacking of monasteries in India, states Richard Blurton, "Buddhism complanate equally a major forcefulness in Republic of india".^[41]

Past the 8th to 9th century, Sailendran Buddhist art were developed and flourished in Medang Mataram kingdom of Central Java, Indonesia. This period marked the renaissance of Buddhist art in Java, as numerous exquisite monuments were built, including Kalasan, Manjusrigrha, Mendut and Borobudur stone mandala. The traditions would continue to the 13th century Singhasari Buddhist art of E Coffee.

From the ninth to the 13th centuries, Southeast Asia had very powerful empires and became extremely active in Buddhist architectural and creative creation. The Sri Vijaya Empire to the south and the Central khmer Empire to the north competed for influence, only both were adherents of Mahayana Buddhism, and their art expressed the rich Mahayana pantheon of the Bodhisattvas. The Theravada Buddhism of the Pali catechism was introduced to the region around the 13th century from Sri Lanka, and was adopted by the newly founded indigenous Thai kingdom of Sukhothai. Since in Theravada Buddhism of the menses, Monasteries typically were the key places for the laity of the towns to receive instruction and have disputes arbitrated by the monks, the construction of temple complexes plays a particularly important role in the artistic expression of Southeast Asia from that time.

From the 14th century, the main factor was the spread of Islam to the maritime areas of Southeast Asia, overrunning Malaysia, Indonesia, and virtually of the islands as far as the Southern Philippines. In the continental areas, Theravada Buddhism connected to expand into Burma, Laos and Cambodia.

Sri Lanka [edit]

According to tradition, Buddhism was introduced in Sri Lanka in the third century BCE past Indian missionaries nether the guidance of Thera Mahinda, the son of the Mauryan Emperor Ashoka. Prior to the expansion of Buddhism, the indigenous population of Sri Lanka lived in an animistic globe full of superstition. The absorption and conversion of the various pre-Buddhist behavior was a slow process. In order to gain a foothold amongst the rural population, Buddhism needed to digest the various categories of spirits and other supernatural beliefs.^{[ citation needed ]} The earliest monastic complex was the Mahāvihāra at Anurādhapura founded by Devānampiyatissa and presented to Mahinda Thera. The Mahāvihāra became the eye of the orthodox Theravāda doctrine and its supreme position remained unchallenged until the foundation of the Abhayagiri Vihāra around 89 BCE by Vaţţagāmaņĩ.

The Abhayagiri Vihāra became the seat of the reformed Mahāyāna doctrines. The rivalry between the monks of the Mahāvihāra and the Abhayagiri led to a further dissever and the foundation of the Jetavanarama near the Mahāvihāra. The principal characteristic of Sinhala Buddhism was its division into iii major groups, or nikāyas, named afterward the three main monastic complexes at Anurādhapura; the Mahāvihāra, the Abhayagiri, and the Jetavanārāma. This was the consequence in the deviations in the disciplinary rules (vinaya) and doctrinal disputes. All the other monasteries of Sri Lanka owed ecclesiastical allegiance to ane of the iii. Sri Lanka is famous for its creations of Buddhist sculptures fabricated of stone and cast in bronze alloy.^[42]

Myanmar [edit]

A Mandalay-mode statue of Buddha

A neighbour of India, Myanmar (Burma) was naturally strongly influenced by the eastern part of Indian territory. The Mon of southern Burma are said to have been converted to Buddhism around 200 BCE under the proselytizing of the Indian male monarch Ashoka, earlier the schism between Mahayana and Hinayana Buddhism.

Early Buddhist temples are found, such as Beikthano in central Myanmar, with dates betwixt the 1st and the 5th centuries. The Buddhist art of the Mons was especially influenced by the Indian art of the Gupta and post-Gupta periods, and their mannerist style spread widely in Southeast Asia post-obit the expansion of the Mon Empire between the fifth and 8th centuries.

Later, thousands of Buddhist temples were congenital at Bagan, the capital, between the 11th and 13th centuries, and around 2,000 of them are still standing. Beautiful jeweled statues of the Buddha are remaining from that period. Creation managed to continue despite the seizure of the city past the Mongols in 1287.

Scenes from the life of the Buddha in an 18th-century Burmese watercolour

During the Ava period, from the 14th to 16th centuries, the Ava (Innwa) fashion of the Buddha image was popular. In this style, the Buddha has big protruding ears, exaggerated eyebrows that curve upward, one-half-closed eyes, thin lips and a hair bun that is pointed at the superlative, commonly depicted in the bhumisparsa mudra.^[43]

During the Konbaung dynasty, at the end of the 18th century, the Mandalay fashion of the Buddha image emerged, a way that remains popular to this day.^[44] In that location was a marked departure from the Innwa style, and the Buddha's face is much more natural, fleshy, with naturally-slanted eyebrows, slightly slanted eyes, thicker lips, and a round pilus bun at the top. Buddha images in this style can be found reclining, standing or sitting.^[45] Mandalay-style Buddhas clothing flowing, draped robes.

Another common way of Buddha images is the Shan style, from the Shan people, who inhabit the highlands of Myanmar. In this style, the Buddha is depicted with angular features, a large and prominently pointed nose, a hair bun tied similar to Thai styles, and a small, thin mouth.^[46]

Cambodia [edit]

Cambodia was the center of the Funan kingdom, which expanded into Burma and as far south as Malaysia between the 3rd and 6th centuries. Its influence seems to have been substantially political, most of the cultural influence coming directly from India.

Later, from the 9th to 13th centuries, the Mahayana Buddhist and Hindu Khmer Empire dominated vast parts of the Southeast Asian peninsula, and its influence was foremost in the development of Buddhist art in the region. Nether the Central khmer, more than 900 temples were built in Cambodia and in neighboring Thailand and Laos. The royal patronage for Khmer Buddhist art reached its new summit with the patronage of Jayavarman VII, a Buddhist king that built Angkor Thom walled metropolis, adorned with the grin face up of Lokeshvara in Angkor Thom dvaras (gates) and prasat towers Bayon.^[47] Angkor was at the center of this evolution, with a Buddhist temple circuitous and urban organization able to support around 1 million urban dwellers. A great bargain of Cambodian Buddhist sculpture is preserved at Angkor; however, organized looting has had a heavy impact on many sites around the country.

Oft, Khmer art manages to limited intense spirituality through divinely effulgent expressions, in spite of spare features and slender lines.

Thailand [edit]

The Thai Buddhist art encompasses menstruum for more than than a millennia, from pre Thai civilisation of Dvaravati and Srivijaya, to the first Thai majuscule of Thai 13th century Sukhothai, all the mode to succeeding Thai kingdoms of Ayutthaya and Rattanakosin.^[48]

From the 1st to the 7th centuries, Buddhist art in Thailand was start influenced by straight contact with Indian traders and the expansion of the Mon kingdom, leading to the creation of Hindu and Buddhist art inspired from the Gupta tradition, with numerous monumental statues of great virtuosity.

From the 9th century, the diverse schools of Thai fine art then became strongly influenced by Cambodian Central khmer art in the north and Sri Vijaya art in the south, both of Mahayana faith. Up to the end of that period, Buddhist fine art is characterized by a clear fluidness in the expression, and the subject matter is characteristic of the Mahayana pantheon with multiple creations of Bodhisattvas.

From the 13th century, Theravada Buddhism was introduced from Sri Lanka around the same time equally the ethnic Thai kingdom of Sukhothai was established.^[48] The new faith inspired highly stylized images in Thai Buddhism, with sometimes very geometrical and almost abstract figures.

During the Ayutthaya menstruum (14th-18th centuries), the Buddha came to be represented in a more stylistic manner with sumptuous garments and jeweled ornamentations. Many Thai sculptures or temples tended to exist gold, and on occasion enriched with inlays.

The ensuing menses of Thonburi and Rattanakosin Kingdom saw the further development of Thai Buddhist art.^[48] By the 18th century, Bangkok was established every bit the royal middle of the kingdom of Siam. Subsequently, the Thai rulers filled the metropolis with imposing Buddhist monuments to demonstrate their Buddhist piety too as to showcase their authorization. Amongst others are the historic Wat Phra Kaew which hosts the Emerald Buddha. Other Buddhist temples in Bangkok includes Wat Arun with prang fashion towers, and Wat Pho with its famous image of Reclining Buddha.

Republic of indonesia [edit]

Like the rest of Southeast Asia, Indonesia seems to have been most strongly influenced by Bharat from the 1st century CE. The islands of Sumatra and Java in western Republic of indonesia were the seat of the empire of Sri Vijaya (8th-13th century), which came to dominate most of the surface area around the Southeast Asian peninsula through maritime ability. The Sri Vijayan Empire had adopted Mahayana and Vajrayana Buddhism, nether a line of rulers named the Sailendra. The Sailendras was the ardent temple builder and the devoted patron of Buddhism in Java.^[49] Sri Vijaya spread Mahayana Buddhist art during its expansion into the Southeast Asian peninsula. Numerous statues of Mahayana Bodhisattvas from this period are characterized by a very stiff refinement and technical sophistication, and are institute throughout the region. Ane of the earliest Buddhist inscription in Java, the Kalasan inscription dated 778, mentioned most the construction of a temple for the goddess Tara.^[49]

Extremely rich and refined architectural remains are found in Java and Sumatra. The nigh magnificent is the temple of Borobudur (the largest Buddhist structure in the world, built effectually 780-850 AD), congenital past Sailendras.^[49] This temple is modelled after the Buddhist concept of universe, the Mandala which counts 505 images of the seated Buddha and unique bong-shaped stupa that contains the statue of Buddha. Borobudur is adorned with long serial of bas-reliefs narrated the holy Buddhist scriptures.^[50] The oldest Buddhist structure in Republic of indonesia probably is the Batujaya stupas at Karawang, West Coffee, dated from around the 4th century. This temple is some plastered brick stupas. Still, Buddhist art in Indonesia reach the gold era during the Sailendra dynasty rule in Coffee. The bas-reliefs and statues of Boddhisatva, Tara, and Kinnara constitute in Kalasan, Sewu, Sari, and Plaosan temple is very graceful with serene expression, While Mendut temple well-nigh Borobudur, houses the behemothic statue of Vairocana, Avalokitesvara, and Vajrapani.

In Sumatra Sri Vijaya probably congenital the temple of Muara Takus, and Muaro Jambi. The well-nigh beautiful example of classical Javanese Buddhist art is the serene and delicate statue of Prajnaparamita of Coffee (the collection of National Museum Jakarta) the goddess of transcendental wisdom from Singhasari kingdom.^[51] The Indonesian Buddhist Empire of Sri Vijaya declined due to conflicts with the Chola rulers of Republic of india, then followed by Majapahit empire.

Philippines [edit]

The Main Chantry of a Buddhist Temple in Masangkay Street, Tondo, Manila.

The Philippines'south archaeological has a findings of Buddhist artifacts.^{[52] [53]} The style exhibits Vajrayāna influence,^{[54] [55] [56]} and nigh of them dated to the ninth century. The artifacts reflect the iconography of the Śrīvijayan empire'south Vajrayāna and its influences on the Philippines's early on states. The artifacts' distinct features signal to their product in the islands, and they hint at the artisan'due south or goldsmith'southward knowledge of Buddhist civilisation and literature because the artisans accept made these unique works of Buddhist fine art. They imply also the presence of Buddhist believers in the places where these artifacts turned upwards. These places extended from the Agusan-Surigao area in Mindanao island to Cebu, Palawan, and Luzon islands. Hence, Vajrayāna ritualism must have spread far and broad throughout the archipelago.

Contemporary Buddhist art [edit]

The Final Release, by Abanindranath Tagore. Illustration from the book "Buddha and the gospel of Buddhism" (1916).

Many contemporary artists take made employ of Buddhist themes. Notable examples are Neb Viola, in his video installations,^[57] John Connell, in sculpture,^[58] and Allan Graham in his multi-media "Fourth dimension is Memory".^[59]

In the United kingdom of great britain and northern ireland The Network of Buddhist Organisations has interested itself in identifying Buddhist practitioners across all the arts. In 2005 it co-ordinated the UK-broad Buddhist arts festival, "A Lotus in Bloom";^[sixty] in 2009 it helped organise the two-24-hour interval arts conference, "Buddha Heed, Artistic Mind".^[61] As a result of the latter an clan of Buddhist artists was formed.^[62]

Meet as well [edit]

Gautama Buddha & Buddhism

Early Buddhist Texts

Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta

Samaññaphala Sutta

Mahaparinibbana Sutta

Great Renunciation & Four sights

Physical characteristics of the Buddha

Relics associated with Buddha

Buddharupa

Leela Attitude

Māravijaya Mental attitude

Meditation Attitude

Naga Prok Attitude

Buddhist architecture

Buddhist music

Buddhist symbolism

Depictions of Gautama Buddha in film

Notes [edit]

1. ^ "What is Buddhist Art?". Buddhist Art News. 23 August 2010. Retrieved 27 January 2014.
2. ^ T. Richard Blurton (1994), Hindu Art, Harvard Academy Press, ISBN 978-0674391895, pp. 113–116, 160–162, 191–192
3. ^ Buddhist Fine art Frontline Magazine thirteen–26 May 1989
4. ^ Myer, Prudence R. (1986). "Bodhisattvas and Buddhas: Early on Buddhist Images from Mathurā". Artibus Asiae. 47 (2): 111–113. doi:10.2307/3249969. ISSN 0004-3648. JSTOR 3249969.
5. ^ Rock Edict Nb13 (S. Dhammika)
6. ^ "(In the Milindapanha) Menander is alleged an arhat", McEvilley, p. 378.
7. ^ Simmons, Caleb; Sarao, Chiliad. T. S. (2010). "Pushyamitra Sunga, a Hindu ruler in the second century BCE, was a great persecutor of Buddhists". In Danver, Steven 50. Popular Controversies in World History. ABC-CLIO. p. 89. ISBN 978-1598840780
8. ^ Orlina, Roderick (2012). "Epigraphical show for the cult of Mahāpratisarā in the Philippines". Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies. 35 (one–2): 165–166. ISSN 0193-600X. Archived from the original on 30 May 2019. Retrieved 30 May 2019. This epitome was previously thought to be a distorted Tārā, but was recently correctly identified as a Vajralāsyā ('Bodhisattva of dotty dance'), one of the four deities associated with providing offerings to the Buddha Vairocana and located in the southeast corner of a Vajradhātumaṇḍala.
9. ^ Weinstein, John. "Agusan Golden Vajralasya". Google Arts & Culture. Archived from the original on 1 June 2019. Scholars think that the statue may represent an offering goddess from a 3-dimensional Vajradhatu (Diamond World) mandala.
10. ^ Sørensen, Henrik H. (1995). "Buddhist Sculptures from the Vocal Dynasty at Mingshan Temple in Anyue, Sichuan". Artibus Asiae. 55 (3/4): 281–302. doi:10.2307/3249752. ISSN 0004-3648. JSTOR 3249752.
11. ^ Solonin, Thousand. J. (2013). "Buddhist Connections between the Liao and Xixia: Preliminary Considerations". Journal of Song-Yuan Studies. 43: 171–219. ISSN 1059-3152. JSTOR 43855194.
12. ^ Lin, Hang (i May 2019). "A Sinicised Religion Under Foreign Rule: Buddhism in the Jurchen Jin Dynasty (1115–1234)". The Medieval History Journal. 22 (1): 23–52. doi:10.1177/0971945818806991. ISSN 0971-9458. S2CID 165514947.
13. ^ Cotterell, A; The imperial capitals of China: an within view of the celestial empire, Random House 2008, ISBN 978-ane-84595-010-1 p. 179
14. ^ Ortiz, Valérie Malenfer; Dreaming the southern song landscape: the power of illusion in Chinese painting, Brill 1999, ISBN 978-90-04-11011-3 pp. 161–162
15. ^ Cahill, James (1997). "Continuations of Ch'an Ink Painting into Ming-Ch'ing and the Prevalence of Blazon Images". Athenaeum of Asian Art. 50: 17–41. ISSN 0066-6637. JSTOR 20111272.
16. ^ Ryor, Kathleen 1000. (2019). "Style as Substance". In Faini, Marco; Meneghin, Alessia (eds.). Style equally Substance:: Literary Ink Painting and Buddhist Practise in Late Ming Dynasty Communist china. Domestic Devotions in the Early Mod World. Vol. 59. Brill. pp. 244–266. ISBN978-90-04-34254-v. JSTOR 10.1163/j.ctvrzgvxg.19. Retrieved xix July 2021.
17. ^ Ursula., Toyka-Fuong (2014). The splendours of paradise murals and epigraphic documents at the early Ming Buddhist monastery Fahai Si. Institut Monumenta Serica. ISBN978-3-8050-0617-0. OCLC 1087831059.
18. ^ Weidner, Marsha Smith, and Patricia Ann Berger. Latter Days of the Law : Images of Chinese Buddhism, 850–1850. Lawrence, KS: Spencer Museum of Art, University of Kansas, 1994.
19. ^ Berger 1994, p. 113
20. ^ Berger 1994, pp. 114–118
21. ^ Berger 1994, p. 114
22. ^ Berger, Patricia Ann. Empire of Emptiness : Buddhist Art and Political Authority in Qing Red china. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Printing, 2003.
23. ^ "Crown". Arts of Korea. The Metropolitan Museum of Art. Retrieved nine January 2007.
24. ^ Grayson (2002), p. 21.
25. ^ ^{a b} Grayson (2002), p. 25.
26. ^ Grayson (2002), p. 24.
27. ^ Peter N. Stearns & William Leonard Langer (2001). The Encyclopedia of World History: ancient, medieval, and mod, chronologically bundled. Houghton Mifflin Books. ISBN0-395-65237-five. ; "Korea, 500–thousand A.D." Timeline of Arts History. The Metropolitan Museum of Art. Retrieved 9 January 2007.
28. ^ Grayson (2002), pp. 27 & 33.
29. ^ "Korean Buddhist Sculpture, 5th–ninth Century". Timeline of Arts History. The Metropolitan Museum of Art. Retrieved 9 Jan 2007.
30. ^ "Korean Buddhist Sculpture (fifth–9th century) | Thematic Essay | Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History | The Metropolitan Museum of Art". metmuseum.org. Retrieved 11 December 2014.
31. ^ "Japanese Art and Its Korean Clandestine". www2.kenyon.edu. Retrieved xi Dec 2014.
32. ^ Fletcher, B.; Cruickshank, D. (1996). Sir Banister Fletcher's a History of Architecture. Architectural Press. p. 716. ISBN978-0750622677 . Retrieved 12 December 2014.
33. ^ metmuseum.org
34. ^ Grayson, J.H. (2002). Korea: A Religious History. RoutledgeCurzon. p. 33. ISBN978-0700716050 . Retrieved 11 December 2014.
35. ^ Sampa Biswas (2010). Indian Influence on the Art of Nippon. Northern Book Centre. ISBN978-8172112691.
36. ^ Kotobank, Jōchō. The Asahi Shimbun.
37. ^ Kotobank, Kei school. The Asahi Shimbun.
38. ^ Kotobank, Sanjūsangen-dō. The Asahi Shimbun.
39. ^ Buddhist Statues at the Sanjūsangen-dō. Sanjūsangen-dō.
40. ^ Deborah E. Klimburg-Salter; Christian Luczanits (1997). Tabo: a lamp for the kingdom : early Indo Tibetan Buddhist art in the western Himalaya, Archeologia, arte primitiva east orientale. Skira.
41. ^ ^{a b} T. Richard Blurton (1994), Hindu Art, Harvard University Press, ISBN 978-0674391895, pp. 202–204, Quote: "Buddhism flourished in this part of India throughout the starting time millennium Advertisement, particularly nether the patronage of Pala kings of the eighth and twelfth centuries. Towards the end of this period, pop Buddhism and Hinduism became increasingly intermeshed. However, when Muslim invaders from farther west sacked the monasteries in the twelfth century, Buddhism collapsed equally a major force in Republic of india."
42. ^ von Schroeder, Ulrich. 1990. Buddhist Sculptures of Sri Lanka. First comprehensive monograph on the stylistic and iconographic development of the Buddhist sculptures of Sri Lanka. 752 pages with 1620 illustrations (20 color and 1445 half-tone illustrations; 144 drawings and 5 maps. (Hong Kong: Visual Dharma Publications, Ltd.). von Schroeder, Ulrich. 1992. The Golden Age of Sculpture in Sri Lanka – Masterpieces of Buddhist and Hindu Bronzes from Museums in Sri Lanka, [catalogue of the exhibition held at the Arthur M. Sackler Gallery, Washington, D.C., 1 November 1992 – 26 September 1993]. (Hong Kong: Visual Dharma Publications, Ltd.).
43. ^ "The Post Infidel Period – Role 1". seasite.niu.edu. Retrieved eleven December 2014.
44. ^ "The Mail Heathen Period – Part 3". seasite.niu.edu. Retrieved 11 Dec 2014.
45. ^ "buddhaartgallery.com". buddhaartgallery.com. Retrieved 11 December 2014.
46. ^ "buddhaartgallery.com". buddhaartgallery.com. Retrieved 11 December 2014.
47. ^ W. Vivian De Thabrew (2014). Buddhist Monuments and Temples of Kingdom of cambodia and Laos. Author House. p. 33. ISBN978-1496998972.
48. ^ ^{a b c} Dawn F. Rooney (2016). Thai Buddhist Art: Notice Thai Fine art. River Books. ISBN978-6167339696.
49. ^ ^{a b c} Jean Philippe Vogel; Adriaan Jacob Barnouw (1936). Buddhist Fine art in India, Ceylon, and Coffee. Asian Educational Services. pp. 90–92. ISBN978-8120612259.
50. ^ John Miksic (2012). Borobudur: Golden Tales of the Buddhas. Tuttle Publishing. ISBN978-1462909100.
51. ^ "Prajnaparamita". Virtual Collections of Asian Masterpieces. Retrieved 27 August 2017.
52. ^ Peralta, Jesus T. (July–August 1983). "Prehistoric Gilt Ornaments From the Cardinal Banking company of the Philippines". Arts of Asia. pp. 54–60.
53. ^ Zafra, Jessica (26 April 2008). "Art Exhibit: Philippines' 'Gold of Ancestors'". Newsweek . Retrieved 6 February 2022.
54. ^ Legeza, Laszlo (1988). "Tantric Elements in Pre-Hispanic Aureate Fine art". Arts of Asia. Vol. 18, no. four. pp. 129–133.
55. ^ "History of Palawan". Camperspoint. Archived from the original on xv January 2009. Retrieved five Dec 2018.
56. ^ "Early Buddhism in the Philippines". Buddhism in the Philippines. viii November 2014.
57. ^ Buddha Mind in Gimmicky Art, Academy of California Press, 2004
58. ^ ARTlines, April 1983
59. ^ The Brooklyn Rail, December 2007
60. ^ a affiche advertising i of the events is archived here – http://www.nbo.org.uk/whats%20on/poster.pdf Archived 24 August 2005 at the Wayback Machine
61. ^ Lokabandhu. "Triratna Buddhist Community News: Report from 'Buddha Mind – Creative Mind?' conference". fwbo-news.blogspot.com. Retrieved 11 December 2014.
62. ^ "Dharma Arts Network – Launched at Buddha Heed – Creative Mind ?". dharmaarts.ning.com. Archived from the original on x October 2010. Retrieved 11 December 2014.

References [edit]

• Grayson, James Huntley (2002). Korea: A Religious History. UK: Routledge. ISBN0-7007-1605-X.
• Gibson, Agnes C. (Tr. from the 'Handbook' of Prof. Albert Grunwedel) (1901). Buddhist Art in India. Revised and Enlarged past Jas. Burgess. London: Bernard Quaritc.

Bibliography [edit]

• von Schroeder, Ulrich. (1990). Buddhist Sculptures of Sri Lanka. (752 p.; 1620 illustrations). Hong Kong: Visual Dharma Publications, Ltd. ISBN 962-7049-05-0
• von Schroeder, Ulrich. (1992). The Gilt Historic period of Sculpture in Sri Lanka - Masterpieces of Buddhist and Hindu Bronzes from Museums in Sri Lanka, [catalogue of the exhibition held at the Arthur M. Sackler Gallery, Washington, D. C., 1 November 1992 – 26 September 1993]. Hong Kong: Visual Dharma Publications, Ltd. ISBN 962-7049-06-9

Further reading [edit]

• Along the ancient silk routes: Central Asian fine art from the Westward Berlin Land Museums. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Fine art. 1982. ISBN978-0870993008.
• Arts of Korea. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. 1998. ISBN0870998501.
• Foltz, Richard C. (2010). Religions of the Silk Route: Premodern Patterns of Globalization. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN978-0-230-62125-1.
• Grünwedel, Albert: Buddhist art in India / transl. from the 'Handbuch' of Albert Grünwedel past Agnes Gibson. Rev. and enlarged by Jas. Burgess, London: Quaritch, 1901 Internet Archive
• Jarrige, Jean-François (2001). Arts asiatiques- Guimet (Éditions de la Réunion des Musées Nationaux ed.). Paris. ISBN2-7118-3897-8.
• Kossak, S.M.; et al. (1998). Sacred visions: early paintings from cardinal Tibet. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. ISBN978-0870998614.
• Lee, Sherman (2003). A History of Far Eastern Art (5th ed.). New York: Prentice Hall. ISBN0-13-183366-nine.
• Leidy, Denise Patry & Strahan, Donna (2010). Wisdom embodied: Chinese Buddhist and Daoist sculpture in the Metropolitan Museum of Art. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. ISBN978-1588393999.
• Lerner, Martin (1984). The flame and the lotus: Indian and Southeast Asian fine art from the Kronos collections. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. ISBN0870993747.
• Scarre, Dr. Chris (editor) (1991). Past Worlds. The Times Atlas of Archeology. London: Times Books Limited. ISBN0-7230-0306-viii.
• Susan L. Huntington: "Early Buddhist art and the theory of aniconism", Art Periodical, Winter 1990.
• D. M. Godse's writings in Marathi.
• von Schroeder, Ulrich. 1981. Indo-Tibetan Bronzes. (Hong Kong: Visual Dharma Publications, Ltd.).
• von Schroeder, Ulrich. 2001. Buddhist Sculptures in Tibet. Vol. One: Republic of india & Nepal; Vol. Two: Tibet & China. (Hong Kong: Visual Dharma Publications, Ltd.).
• Watt, James C.Y.; et al. (2004). Cathay: dawn of a golden age, 200–750 AD. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. ISBN1588391264.

External links [edit]

• Buddhist Art at the Open Directory Project
• The Herbert Offen Research Collection of the Phillips Library at the Peabody Essex Museum
• Well-nigh Sri Lankan archetype art since prehistorical era

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Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhist_art

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